Індонезійська мова: відмінності між версіями
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== Мовотвір ==
=== Утворення слів ===
Індонезійська - це агглютинативна мова і нові слова утворються за допомогою трьох способів:
* Додавання приставок (аффіксів).
* Утворення складних слів з двох або більше слів.
Рядок 86 ⟶ 88:
kehendak - намір, бажання.
* ''Ber-'' + ''ajar'' (вчити) = ''BeLajar'' (вивчати, зверніть увагу на зникнення 'R' і додавання 'L')
* ''Me-'' + ''ajar'' + ''-kan'' = ''meNG''ajar''kan'' (вчити чомусь, зверніть увагу на додавання 'NG')
* ''Tinggal'' (base word (BW) form) = to reside, live (in a place)
* Men''inggal'' (MeN+BW) = to die, pass away (short form of 'Meninggal dunia' below)
* Men''inggal'' dunia (MeN+BW + world) = to pass away, to die (lit. pass on from the world)
* Men''inggal''kan (MeN+BW+kan) = to leave (a place); to leave behind/abandon (someone/ something)
* Ke''tinggal''an (Ke+BW+an) = to miss (a bus, train, etc); to be left behind
* Ter''tinggal'' (Ter+BW) = to be (accidentally) left behind
* Di''tinggal''kan (Di+BW+kan) = to be left behind; to be abandoned
* Selamat ''tinggal'' (word + BW) = goodbye (said to the person staying)
'''Noun affixes''' are affixes that form nouns upon addition to base words. The following are examples of noun affixes:
{|class="wikitable"
! style="background:#efefef;" | Type of noun affixes
! style="background:#efefef;" | Affix
! style="background:#efefef;" | Example of root word
! style="background:#efefef;" | Example of derived word
|-
|Prefix
|pe(N)-
|''duduk'' (sit)
|''penduduk'' (resident)
|-
|
|ke-
|''hendak'' (want)
|''kehendak'' (desire)
|-
|Infix
| -el-
|''tunjuk'' (point)
|''telunjuk'' (index finger, command)
|-
|
| -em-
|''kelut'' (dishevelled)
|''kemelut'' (chaos, crisis)
|-
|
| -er-
|''gigi'' (teeth)
|''gerigi'' (toothed blade, serration)
|-
|Suffix
| -an
|''bangun'' (wake up, raise)
|''bangunan'' (building)
|-
|Confix
|ke-...-an
|''raja'' (king)
|''kerajaan'' (kingdom)
|-
|
|pe-...-an
|''kerja'' (work)
|''pekerjaan'' (occupation)
|}
(N) and (R) indicate that if a word begins with certain letters (most often vowels or consonants k, p, s, t), the letter will either be omitted or other letters will replace it, most commonly with the letters in the bracket or m, ng, ny and l.
Similarly, '''verb affixes''' are attached to root words to form verbs. In Indonesian, there are:
{|class="wikitable"
! style="background:#efefef;" | Type of verb affixes
! style="background:#efefef;" | Affix
! style="background:#efefef;" | Example of root word
! style="background:#efefef;" | Example of derived word
|-
|Prefix
|be(L)-
|''ajar'' (teach)
|''belajar'' (to study) - '''[[intransitive verb|Intransitive]]'''
|-
|
|me(N)-
|''tolong'' (help)
|''menolong'' (to help) - '''[[Active voice|Active]] [[transitive verb|transitive]]'''
|-
|
|me(NG)-
|''gambar'' (picture)
|''menggambar'' (to draw) - '''Active transitive'''
|-
|
|di-
|''ambil'' (take)
|''diambil'' (is being taken) - '''[[Passive voice|Passive]] transitive'''
|-
|
|memper-
|''dalam'' (depth)
|''memperdalam'' (to deepen)
|-
|
|dipe(R)-
|''dalam'' (deep)
|''diperdalam'' (is being further deepen)
|-
|
|te(R)-
|''makan'' (eat)
|''termakan'' (to have accidentally eaten)
|-
|Suffix
| -kan
|''letak'' (place, keep)
|''letakkan'' (keep) - [[Grammatical mood#Imperative mood|'''Imperative''']] '''transitive'''
|-
|
| -i
|''jauh'' (far)
|''jauhi'' (avoid) - '''Imperative transitive'''
|-
|Confix
|be(R)-...-an
|''pasang'' (pair)
|''berpasangan'' (to be paired)
|-
|
|be(R)-...-kan
|''dasar'' (base)
|''berdasarkan'' (based upon)
|-
|
|me(M)-...-kan
|''pasti'' (certain)
|''memastikan'' (to ensure)
|-
|
|me(N)-...-i
|''teman'' (companion)
|''menemani'' (to accompany)
|-
|
|mempe(R)-...-kan
|''guna'' (use)
|''mempergunakan'' (to misuse, to utilise)
|-
|
|mempe(L)-...-i
|''ajar'' (teach)
|''mempelajari'' (to study)
|-
|
|ke-...-an
|''hilang'' (disappear)
|''kehilangan'' (to lose)
|-
|
|di-...-i
|''sakit'' (pain)
|''disakiti'' (is being hurt)
|-
|
|di-...-kan
|''benar'' (right)
|''dibenarkan'' (is allowed to)
|-
|
|dipe(R)-...-kan
|''kenal'' (know, recognise)
|''diperkenalkan'' (is being introduced)
|}
'''Adjective affixes''' are attached to base words to form adjectives:
{|class="wikitable"
! style="background:#efefef;" | Type of adjective affixes
! style="background:#efefef;" | Affix
! style="background:#efefef;" | Example of root word
! style="background:#efefef;" | Example of derived word
|-
|Prefix
|te(R)-
|''kenal'' (know)
|''terkenal'' (famous)
|-
|
|se-
|''rupa'' (appearance)
|''serupa'' (similar (to))
|-
|Infix
| -em-
|''cerlang'' (radiant bright)
|''cemerlang'' (bright, excellent)
|-
|
| -er-
|''sabut'' (husk)
|''serabut'' (dishevelled)
|-
|Confix
|ke-...-an
|''barat'' (west)
|''kebaratan'' (westernized)
|}
In addition to these affixes, Indonesia language also has a lot of borrowed affixes from other languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic and English. For example ''maha-'', ''pasca-'', ''eka-'', ''bi-'', ''anti-'', ''pro-'', ''pra-'', etc.
=== Порядок слів у реченні ===
Прикметники, вказівники (вказівні займенники) і присвійники (присвійні займенники) ставляться після відповідного іменника.
Основний порядок слів - Підмет Присудок Другорядні-члени-речення.
Мова може вестися як з точки зору діяча так і того, хто задіяний, з використанням як дієслів активного (вчити) так і пасивного (навчатися) типів. Зокрема речення з пасивним типом дієслів можуть використовуватись для:
'''1) Підкреслення поваги і шани по відношенню до співрозмовника чи проблеми'''
Наприклад ввічливий продавець в магазині може запитати:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Індонезійська
! Переклад
|-
| Bisa ''dibantu?''
| Можна допомогти?
|}
'''2) Обговорення питань, де діяч невідомий, неважливий, або відомий з контексту'''
Наприклад на запитання коли ти купив цей будинок? (коли був куплений цей будинок?):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Індонезійська
! Дослівний переклад
! Переклад
|-
| Rumah ini ''dibeli'' lima tahun yang lalu
| Дім цей '''був куплений''' п'ять років які минули
| Дім '''був куплений''' п'ять років назад
|}
Одним словом, вибір між активним і пасивним видом дієслів залежить від стилю мови і контексту.
=== Прикметники ===
На відміну від англійської, прикметники в індонезійській мові ідуть за іменниками, які вони описують:
{| class="wikitable"
!індонезійська
!дослівний переклад
!переклад
|-
|Mobil merah
|машина червона
|червона машина
|-
|Dia orang yang terkenal sekali
|Це особа яка відома дуже
|Це дуже відома особа
|-
|(Sebuah) cerita panjang
| (Певна) розповідь довга
| Довга розповідь
|}
====Compound words====
In Indonesian, new words can be formed by conjoining two or more base words. Compound words, when they exist freely in a sentence, are often written separately. Compound words are only attached to each other when they are bound by a confix or when they are already considered as stable words.
For example, the word ''rumah'', which means ''house'' and ''makan'', which means ''eat'', are compounded to form a new word ''rumah makan'' (restaurant). Similarly, ''ambil alih'' (take over) is formed using the root words ''ambil'' (take) and ''alih'' (shift), but will link together when a circumfix is attached to it, i.e. ''pengambilalihan'' (takeover). Certain stable words, such as ''kakitangan'' (personnel), and ''kerjasama'' (co-oporation; corporation), are spelled as one word even though the words they consist of can also exist freely in sentences.
===Initial consonant morphing===
Indonesian makes use of [[initial consonant morphing]] when using the prefixes ''me-'' and ''pe-''. This means that according to the initial sound of the base word, the sounds used in the prefix will differ; this is based on the place of articulation.
The sound following the ''me-'' or ''pe-'' suffix is usually a nasal (m, n, ny, ng) or liquid (l, r) sound. Which sound is used depends on the point of articulation. E.g. the initial sound of ''beli'', /b/, is a bi-labial sound (pronounced using both the lips), so the nasal bi-labial sound, /m/ is placed before the base word, creating ''membeli''.
The initial consonant is dropped if it is unvoiced(/p/, /t/, /s/, /k/), e.g. ''menulis''/''tulis'', ''memilih''/''pilih''.
===Grammatical gender===
Generally Indonesian does not make use of [[grammatical gender]], and there are only select words that use natural gender. For instance, the same word is used for ''he'' and ''she'' (''dia/ia'') or for ''his'' and ''her'' (''dia/ia/-nya''). A majority of Indonesian words that refer to people generally have a form that does not distinguish between the sexes. In order to specify the natural gender of a noun, an adjective must be added. Thus, ''adik laki-laki'' corresponds to "younger brother" but really means "younger male sibling". The terms "kakak" and "adik" are not only used to address younger or older siblings, but also used when one person is addressing another who is not his/her sibling. This is done out of respect for the other person.
There are some words that are gendered, for instance ''putri'' means "daughter", and ''putra'' means "son" and also ''pramugara'' means "air steward" (male flight attendant) and ''pramugari'' meaning "air stewardess" (female flight attendant). Another example would be ''olahragawan'', which equates to "sportsman", and ''olahragawati'', meaning sportswoman. Often, words like these (or certain suffixes such as "-a" and "-i" or "-wan" and "wati") are absorbed from other languages (in these cases, from [[Sanskrit]] through the Old [[Javanese language]]).
In some regions of Indonesia such as Sumatra and Jakarta, ''abang'' (a ''gender-specific'' term meaning "older brother") is commonly used as a form of address for older siblings/males, whilst ''kakak'' (a non-gender specific term (meaning "older sibling") is often used to mean "older sister". Similarly, more direct influences from dialects such as Javanese and Chinese languages have also seen further use of other gendered words in Indonesian. For example: ''Mas'' (Jav. = older brother), ''M'bak'' (Jav. = older sister), ''Koko'' ([[Min Nan language|Hokkien]] = older brother) and ''Cici'' or ''Cece'' (Hokkien = older sister).
===Measure words===
Another distinguishing feature of Indonesian language is its use of [[measure word]]s. In this way, it is similar to many other languages of Asia, including [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Burmese language|Burmese]], and [[Bengali language|Bengali]].
Examples of these measure words are: ''ekor'' (used for animals), ''buah'' (generally used for non-living things), ''orang'' (used for people), ''lembar'' (used for paper), ''helai'' (used for long, thin and generally flat things), ''biji'' (used for tiny, round things e.a fruits), ''batang'' (used for long, stick-like objects), etc. However, these measure words may not always be used in informal conversation.
{| class="wikitable"
!Indonesian
!Literal English translation
!Normal English translation
|-
|Tiga ekor sapi
|Three tails (of) cow
|Three cows
|-
|Sepuluh orang tentara
|Ten people soldiers
|Ten soldiers
|-
|Lima lembar/ helai/ carik kertas
|Five sheets/pieces of paper
|Five sheets/pieces of paper
|-
|Sebelas biji (buah) apel
|Eleven seeds (fruits) (of) apple
|Eleven apples (fruits)
|}
* Importantly, when a measure word is being used in conjunction with only '''one''' object, the numeral prefix ''se-'' is used in front of the measure word, not ''satu''. Therefore ''a banana'' would be translated as (se + MW + object) = ''se'''biji''' pisang''.
===Negation===
There are '''three major forms''' of negation used in the Indonesian language, namely ''tidak'', ''bukan'' and ''belum''.
*'''''Tidak''''' (often shortened to ''tak'' (written) and ''nggak'' (spoken) or by Javanese as ''ndak'' or ''gak'') is used for the negation of a verb and adjective.
For example: "saya ''tidak'' tahu" = I do ''not'' know
OR "Ibu saya ''tidak'' senang" = My mother is ''not'' happy
*'''''Bukan''''' is used in the negation of a noun.
For example: "Itu ''bukan'' anjing saya" = That is ''not'' my dog
*'''''Belum''''' is primarily used to negate a sentence or phrase with the sense that something has not yet been accomplished or experienced. In this sense, ''belum'' can also be used as a negative response to a question.
For example: "Anda sudah pernah ke Indonesia (''belum'')? "''Belum'', saya ''belum'' pernah pergi ke Indonesia" = Have you ever been to Indonesia before, (''or not'')? ''No'', I have ''not yet'' been to Indonesia OR "Orang itu ''belum'' terbiasa tinggal di Indonesia" = That person is ''not (yet)'' used to live in Indonesia.
NB: Another kind of negation involves the word ''jangan'', which equates to the English equivalent of "don't" or "do not". ''Jangan'' is used for negating imperatives or advising against certain actions. For example, "''Jangan'' tinggalkan saya di sini!" = '''Don't'' leave me here!'
===Pluralization===
Plurals are expressed by means of [[reduplication]], but only when the plural is not implied in the context. Thus "person" is ''orang'', and "people" is ''orang-orang'', but "a thousand people" is ''seribu orang'', as the use of a numeral (i.e. ''seribu'') renders it unnecessary to mark the plural form.
For foreigners learning Indonesian, the concept of grammatical reduplication is not as easy to grasp as it may seem. Besides expressing plurals, reduplication can also be used to create new words that differ in meaning. For instance, ''hati'' means "heart" or "liver" (depending on context) whereas ''hati-hati'' means "to be careful" and is often used as a verb. As stated above, ''orang'' means "person" while ''orang-orang'' means "people", but ''orang-orangan'' means "scarecrow". Also, not all reduplicated words indicate plural forms of a word with many words naturally expressed in reduplicated form. Examples of these include ''biri-biri'' (sheep) or ''kupu-kupu'' (butterfly), which can imply both a singular or plural meaning, depending on the context or numeral used.
By contrast, there are also some types of plural words that are expressed by reduplication of a similar sounding (but essentially different) word. In these cases the general sound of a word/phrase is repeated, but the initial letter of the repeated word is changed. A common example of this is ''sayur-mayur'' (not ''sayur-sayur'') meaning "vegetables" (plural). Another type of reduplication can be formed through the use of certain affixes (e.g. pe- + -an). For instance, ''pepohonan'' ([various kinds of] trees, from the word ''pohon'' [tree]), ''perumahan'' (houses/housing, from the word ''rumah'' [house]) or ''pegunungan'' (mountains, mountain range, from the word ''gunung'' [mountain]), and so on.
Another useful word to remember when pluralizing in Indonesian is ''beberapa'', which means "some." For example, one may use ''beberapa pegunungan'' to describe a series of mountain ranges and ''beberapa kupu-kupu'' to describe (plural) butterflies.
===Pronouns===
There are [[inclusive and exclusive we|two forms of "we"]], ''kami'' or ''kita'', depending on whether the speaker includes the person being talked to. ''Kami'' (exclusive) is used when the person or people being spoken to are not included, while ''kita'' (inclusive) includes the opposite party. Their usage is increasingly confused in colloquial Indonesian.
There are two major forms of "I," which are ''saya'' and ''aku''. Despite having the same meaning, ''saya'' is definitely the more formal form, whereas ''Aku'' is used often used with family, friends and between lovers. There are three common forms of "you", which are ''kamu'', ''Anda'', and ''kalian''. ''Anda'' is the more polite form of "you" and is used in conversations with someone you barely know, advertising, business situations, or with someone whom you wish to respect. ''Kalian'' is the common plural form of "you" and is often said to be slightly informal.
NB: Because of the overall structure of Indonesian society and influences from regional dialects, many more different pronouns exist in Indonesian. Some of these additional pronouns may show utmost politeness and respect (eg. saudara/saudari = you (male/female) or Anda sekalian = you (polite, plural form)), may be used only in the most informal of situations (eg. gua/ lu = me/ you - ''see [[Indonesian slang language|Indonesian slang]]''), or may even possess somewhat romantic or poetic nuances(eg. daku/dikau = me/you).
'''Common Indonesian Pronouns'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Type
! Indonesian
! English
|-
| First Person
| Saya (standard, polite), Aku (informal, familiar), Gua/Gue (informal, slang)
| I, me
|-
|
| Kami (excl.), Kita (incl.)
| We, us
|-
| Second Person
| Anda (polite, formal), Saudara(male)/Saudari(female) (polite, formal)
| You
|-
|
| Kamu (familiar, informal), (Eng)kau (familiar, informal), Lu (informal, slang)
| You
|-
|
| Kalian (plural, informal), Anda sekalian (plural, formal), Saudara(i)-saudara(i) (polite)
| You (plural)
|-
| Third Person
| Ia, Dia
| He, she, it
|-
|
| Beliau (addressing a highly respected person )
| He, She
|-
|
| Mereka
| They
|}
==== Possessive pronouns ====
{|class="wikitable"
! style="background:#efefef;" | Type of possessive pronouns
! style="background:#efefef;" |
! style="background:#efefef;" | Possessive pronouns
! style="background:#efefef;" | Example of root word
! style="background:#efefef;" | Example of derived word(s)
|-
|First person
|Saya, Aku (I)
| -ku
|''meja'' ( JOBA)
|''mejaku'' ( JOBA)
|-
|
|Kami (we, referring to 1st and 3rd person), kita (we, referring to 1st and 2nd person)
|... (milik) kami/kita
|''kursi'' (JOBA)
|''kursi (milik) kami, kursi (milik) kita'' (our chair)
|-
|Second person
| Kamu (you)
| -mu
|''meja'' (table)
|''mejamu'' (JOBA)
|-
|
| Anda, Saudara (you(polite))
| ... (milik) Anda/Saudara
| ''kursi'' (chairs)
|''kursi (milik) Anda/Saudara'' (your chair)
|-
|
| Kalian (when(plural))
| ... (milik) kalian
| ''kursi'' (chair)
|''kursi (milik) kalian'' (your chair)
|-
|Third person
| Dia, Ia (he, she, it)
| -nya
|''meja'' (table)
|''mejanya'' (his, her, its table)
|-
|
| Beliau (he, she, it (polite))
| ... (milik) Beliau
|''meja'' (table)
|''meja (milik) Beliau'' (his, her, its table)
|-
|
| Mereka (they)
| ... (milik) mereka
| ''kursi'' (chair)
|''kursi (milik) mereka'' (their chair)
|}
==== Demonstrative pronouns ====
There are two kinds of [[demonstrative pronoun]]s in the Indonesian language. ''Ini'' (this, these) is used for a noun that is generally near to the speaker. ''Itu'' (that, those) is used for a noun that is generally far from the speaker. There is no difference between singular form and the plural form. However, plural can be indicated through duplication of a noun followed by a demonstrative pronoun. Also, the word ''yang'' is often placed before demonstrative pronouns to give emphasis and a sense of certainty, particularly when making references or inquiries about something/someone.
'''Various Uses'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Demonst. Pronoun
! Simple Use
! English Meaning
|-
| '''Ini'''
| Buku '''ini'''
| '''This''' book
|-
| '''Itu'''
| Kucing '''itu'''
| '''That''' cat
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Demonst. Pronoun
! Plural Form (via Noun duplication)
! English Meaning
|-
| '''Ini'''
| Buku-buku '''ini'''
| '''These''' books
|-
| '''Itu'''
| Kucing-kucing '''itu'''
| '''Those''' cats
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Demonst. Pronoun + '''yang'''
! Example Sentence
! English Meaning
|-
| '''Yang ini'''
| Q: Anda mau membeli buku yang mana?
A: Saya mau beli '''yang ini'''
| Q: Which book do you wish to purchase?
A: I would like '''this one''' (this book)
|-
| '''Yang itu'''
| Q: Kucing mana yang makan tikusmu?
A: '''Yang itu!'''
| Q: Which cat ate your mouse?
A: '''That one''' (that cat)!
|}
===Verbs===
Verbs are not [[inflection|inflected]] for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs (such as "yesterday") or by other tense indicators (sometimes referred to as aspect particles), such as ''belum'' (not yet) or ''sudah'' (already). On the other hand, there is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and denote [[voice (linguistics)|active-passive voices]]. Such affixes include prefixes, infixes, suffixes, and their combinations; whose usage rules are often ignored in informal conversations.
==== Emphasis====
Although the basic word order of Indonesian is Subject Verb Object (SVO), as mentioned above, it is possible to make frequent use of passive voice or to scramble word order, thus adding [[emphasis]] on a certain sentence particle. The particle being emphasised is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence. In spoken Indonesian, the aspect of the sentence being emphasised is usually followed by a short pause before continuing on with the remainder of the sentence.
Some examples include:
*''Saya pergi ke pasar kemarin'' "I went to the market yesterday" — neutral, or with emphasis on the subject.
*''Kemarin saya pergi ke pasar'' "Yesterday I went to the market" — emphasis on yesterday.
*''Ke pasar saya pergi, kemarin'' "To the market I went yesterday" — emphasis on where I went yesterday.
*''Pergi ke pasar, saya, kemarin'' "To the market went I yesterday" — emphasis on the process of going to the market.
NB: Some of the above examples (namely the latter two) are more likely to be encountered in spoken Indonesian rather than written forms of the language.
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